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Virus-like particles (VLPs) are nanoscale particles, typically ranging from 20 to 200 nanometers in diameter, formed by the self-assembly of one or more viral structural proteins. As they lack viral genetic material, VLPs are replication-incompetent and non-infectious, offering significant advantages in biosafety. VLPs closely mimic the morphology and antigenic epitope presentation of native viruses. The repetitive, high-density array of epitopes on their surface effectively activates both innate and adaptive immune responses, inducing robust humoral and cellular immunity.

Based on their excellent immunogenicity and engineerability, VLPs have become a prominent platform for vaccine development and targeted drug delivery. Several VLP-based vaccines have been approved and marketed, including those against hepatitis B virus, human papillomavirus, and hepatitis E virus. In addition, VLPs serve as a membrane protein display platform, where full-length transmembrane proteins with native conformations are presented on the VLP surface, enabling applications in immunization, antibody screening, and CAR-T cell therapy target validation. In the field of targeted drug delivery and gene therapy, VLPs are also being engineered to encapsulate therapeutic cargoes such as small molecule drugs, siRNA, mRNA, and CRISPR-Cas gene editing systems, demonstrating broad application prospects.